Certain people from certain places (the Global North) in certain languages (overwhelmingly English) produce the vast amount of knowledge about language, second language learning, education, language policy, and so on, and make universal claims to the applicability of that knowledge to the rest of the world. This is not just vaguely inappropriate knowledge, but rather knowledge that seeks to colonize. To oppose this requires several kinds of action that can bring a strong element of renewal to a discipline that all too often speaks only to itself, and largely in English. A central part of this is a process of decolonization of knowledge and practices, of language and theories of second language acquisition, of language policies, and language in education. We need to systematically and thoroughly deconstruct cultural hegemony in our own discipline and beyond and enlist more and more scholars from especially developing Third World societies to participate in the construction or re-invention of various cultural frameworks of research including both aboriginal, native cultural and intellectual resource and local specific conditions, needs and aspirations.
        Decolonizing applied linguistics suggests first of all the need to decolonize ‘language’– or the way that language is framed in linguistics and applied linguistics – aspart of any reclamation project. We can identify several key northern ideas about language that are at best inappropriate when applied to southern contexts and at worst are downright harmful. These include a legacy of considering languages in terms of cognitive, literate systems rather than embodied and embedded cultural processes; a tendency to reify languages as if they exist outside of human relations; and a set of assumptions about languages as repositories of knowledge that once lost, lead simultaneously to the loss of shared forms of culture and knowledge. Language reclamation itself can be understood as a process of decolonization both in terms of giving new life to a language that has been cast aside by processes of coloniality and modernity, and in terms of changing the ways in which language is understood (resisting the colonial archives of linguistic modernity). Decolonization from this point of view involves community needs and goals rather than top-down assumptions about grammatical fluency, and above all, community ontologies of language.
PENNYCOOK, Alastair; MACONI, Sinfree. Innovations and Challenges in Applied Linguistics from the Global South. London and New York: Routledge, 2019, pp. 126-7.
After reading the excerpt, think about the possible relation between applied linguistics and language reclamation and choose the alternative that best associates them. 

Chapter 3
Theoretical Foundation of Critical Literacies and Global and Multicultural Education
    In this chapter, I invite the reader to a more in-depth discussion on critical literacies from global and multicultural perspectives by presenting important theoretical constructs of each field. I first provide a historical and theoretical review of global and multicultural education, followed by the literature review of critical literacies, including relevant definitions. Overall, this chapter serves as the literature review of the three areas. Through this review, I attempt to answer the question on why global and multicultural perspectives matter in the field of critical literacies.
Global Education
The notions of “global” and “multicultural” are different in their theoretical orientation. The former was developed in response to international issues, while the latter was developed in response to national minority struggles in the U.S. This difference of visions and orientations is important as it highlights the difference in scope: global education traditionally is concerned with educational dilemmas that are relevant across nations and continents. It, therefore, covers a broader spectrum of issues such as intercultural relations. Rapid globalization driven by the Internet and human migration highlighted the need for global education and propelled scholarly attention to such matters. Philosophically speaking, global education is based on recognizing core human rights and it pertains to the notion of moral universalism. Namely, it is based on the view that human beings are created equal.
Multicultural Education
    Research on multicultural education has flourished around the globe. In particular, in the U.S. historical context, it emerged with the American Civil Rights Movement. Unlike global education, multicultural education focuses more on national issues, specifically learning about cultures within the state. With its original purpose from the early 1960s and 1970s to address racism in schools and societies, early discussions on race and ethnicity focused on African Americans and were spearheaded by African American scholars. This type of ethnic studies has been the first phase in the development of multicultural education as a field. Since then, more multicultural theorists began to analyze the power issues underlying race and inequality, as well as other topics such as social class gaps and economic discrimination.
YOON, Bogum. Critical Literacies. Global and Multicultural Perspectives. New York: Springer, 2016, pp. 26-29. (Adapted).
We could define the idea of global and multicultural literacies respectively as

Exploring digital multimodal text in EFL classroom: Transformed Practice in Multiliteracies Pedagogy
        [...] In the twenty-first century, education is faced with the sophisticated technology and advance communication because people are now living in a global society with increasingly different local contexts. Students have discovered various ways of using media to communicate, collaborate, and create in the digital space. Much research has been done on multiliteracies pedagogy and a substantial number of studies have investigated multimodal texts [...].
        This new environment changes the concept of text from reading and writing to be multimodal. Consequently, education needs to improve the quality of leaners that have high level of creativity to understand multimodal text.
        Multimodalities are always integrated with the advanced technology where information comes from many sources in different forms [...]. Not only do English teachers need to include the students with all their diversities in situated contexts, but they also need to engage them in multiliteracies. Multiliteracies pedagogy concerned with the use of multimodal layers of learners’ world in the classroom to engage students with the tools and technology that they are already familiar with. It has been considered that multiliteracies pedagogy is a meaningful way that can effectively engage students in teaching and learning practice by offering four benefits. First, it strengthens the relationship between teacher and students. Second, it increases the inclusivity for multiplicity. Third, it develops performances of literacy practices. Last, it creates positive classroom community. The concept of multiliteracies pedagogy is has four major components which can be implemented in teaching practices. Those components are situated practice, overt instruction, critical framing, and transformed practice. Every component has its important role in teaching and learning practice. They do not stand in linear hierarchy, but each of them can happen repeatedly, randomly, or simultaneously in complex ways [...].
        Situated practice means the involvement of meaningful practices that able to relate to students’ experience and background. Through situated practice, teacher needs to construct the students’ life world experience and putting the meaning-making process in the real-world context. Overt instruction is defined as an active interaction between teacher and students that helps students to understand what they learn. Critical framing is similar with analyzing the social and cultural meaning of texts by assessing particular designs of meaning. Transformed practice is transferring the previous design to create a new design of text in a different context and cultural site. With transformed practice, students are expected to apply the knowledge they gained (from situated practice, overt instruction, and critical framing) appropriately and creatively. This involves activities such as writing, drawing, problem-solving [...].
Available in: https://journal.ipm2kpe.or.id/index.php/LEEA/article/view/1416. Acess on: Feb. 10, 2026. (Adapted).
The article affirms that 

The effect of teaching Structural Discourse Markers in an EFL classroom setting
        [...] Recent studies in corpus linguistics have examined specific aspects of spoken grammar particularly in unplanned speech. According to McCarthy and Carter (2001), spoken grammars have uniquely special qualities that distinguish them from written ones [...]. In spoken discourse, according to Fung and Carter (2007), the amount and frequency of DM use is significant in comparison to the use of other forms because they serve important interpersonal functions.
        Therefore, DMs act as influential interactional features rather than having a purely grammatical function. One of the most important features of DMs is to constitute and organize talk [...]. There is acknowledgement that DMs have a pragmatic meaning in discourse and consequently play a significant role in speakers’ pragmatic competence because they contribute to the pragmatic meaning of utterances. Thus, there is the view that DMs contribute to the interpretation of an utterance rather than to its propositional content [...].              There are a limited number of studies conducted on the instruction of DMs in EFL contexts. All studies revealed similar findings, namely explicit instruction has a positive impact on learners’ production. The main difference being that each study focused on a different genre: writing skills, oral production and listening comprehension, respectively. In all these studies the addition of a post-test would have been beneficial to measure the long-lasting effects of teaching DMs on learners’ acquisition.              Rahimi and Riasati (2012) stated that using DMs will help learners to perform better in spoken skills. In English as a Second Language context (ESL) Jones (2009) carried out a small-scale study with two groups, both of which were given the same DMs using two different teaching approaches: illustration, interaction and induction (III) and presentation, practice and production (PPP). The results demonstrated that PPP had a considerable effect on learners’ use of the taught DMs [...].
Available in: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1101735.pdf. Acess on: Feb. 2, 2026.
According to the text’s perspective, 

    lt is often a delicate decision as to how to provide learners with feedback on their errors when their attention is primarily focused on the content of what they are saying, rather than on the way they are saying it. Interrupting learners ‘in full flight’ to give them corrections seems to run counter to the need to let them experience autonomy. If the teacher is constantly intervening to assist their performance, whether by providing unknown words or correcting their errors, they can hardly be said to be self-regulating. And it may have the counterproductive effect of inhibiting fluency by forcing learners’ attention on to accuracy. Nevertheless, many teachers feel uncomfortable about ‘letting errors go’, even in fluency activities, and there is support for the view that maintaining a focus on form – that is, on formal accuracy – is good for learners in the long run. lt is important, therefore, that such a focus should be effected at minimal cost to the speaker’s sense of being in control. What is agreed is that in cases of correction of oral fluency, the teacher’s corrections, while explicit, are unobtrusive, and these are picked up by the learners with no real loss of fluency: ln the above extract, the teacher's interventions should be economical and effective, and the conversational flow should not threatened. However, it could be argued that such overt monitoring deprives the learners of opportunities to take more responsibility for their own monitoring and selfrepair. This is especially the case with regard to their mistakes, as opposed to their errors. By mistake is meant the learners’ momentary failure to apply what they already know, due mainly to the demands of online processing. An error, on the other hand, represents a gap in the speaker’s knowledge of the system. Mistakes can usually be self-corrected, but errors cannot. A deft hint to the learner that they have used a present verb form instead of a past one, for example, may be all that is needed to encourage selfcorrection. And self-correction, even if prompted by the teacher, is one step nearer self-regulation and the ultimate goal of full autonomy. Sometimes, however, the learner’s message is simply unintelligible, and some kind of more obtrusive intervention is necessary to repair the breakdown. ln this case, an intervention that is perceived by the learner as repair is likely to be less inhibiting than one that is perceived of as correction. Repair is facilitative, while correction can be construed negatively, as judgmental. In repairing, the teacher's intervention takes the form of a conversational repair, one that is consistent with the meaning-orientation of the interaction
THORNBURY, Scott. How to Teach Speaking. Cambridge: Longman, 2005, pp. 91-2. (Adapted).
One of the main problems when dealing with oral fluency is to know if a student should be corrected when interacting or after it. After reading this passage about feedback and correction in fluency, select the alternative that agrees with the point of view discussed in the passage.

In the book titled Literacies by Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope, the authors mention the roles of teachers and students facing the challenges of reading in a technological environment. According to the authors, “Communication is rapidly changing. With the rise of new technologies and media, the way we make and transmit meaning is shifting significantly”. For this reason the profile of students have changed considerably from passive actors in the reading and interpreting information to more active meaning-makers, considering the various forms of access to information. New media environment “focuses not only on reading and writing, but also on other modes of communication, including oral, visual, audio, gestural and spatial”.
Below you will find a list of actions related to reading and interpreting texts both in the new and old environments. Read the actions and decide which action relates to which kind of environment. Then choose the correct alternative that corresponds to the right choice.
1. Appreciating texts of prestige ‘literary’ value must be the rule for right interpretation.
2. Innovations, risk-taking and diversity in meaning-making are aspects to be regarded by teachers.
3. It must be considered that a wide and diverse range of texts exists and should be valued.
4. Reading means decoding messages transmitted by written texts.
5. Teaching students to read means dealing solely with canonic British and American production.
6. The fundamentals of literacy should be understanding messages beyond messages.
7. The many social languages and variations in communication must be considered.
8. There are multiple forms of reading a word in multimodal communication.
9. Understanding and using correct spelling and grammar is good communication.
10. We should read only standard, educated English used in homogeneous situations.
KALANTZIS, Mary; COPE, Bill. Literacies. Melbourne: CUP, 2012, p.19. (Adapted). 

        Even if a foreign language student is an able decoder in English, the level of effort required to read for meaning in real time academic situations can be a monumental task. Look how author Richard Rodriguez (1982) describes his own reading in English as a new language: “Most books, of course, I barely understood. While reading Plato’s Republic, I needed to keep looking at the book jacket to remind myself what the text was about”. One might ask how Rodriguez could be reading a book at such an advanced level in English but still not reading with comprehension. How could he read and yet not read? And what is it that makes reading in a new language so overwhelming? Perhaps part of the answer can be found in the less extensive listening vocabulary upon which foreign language students can draw when reading written words, they have never seen before. Part of it may result from incomplete knowledge of the syntax and grammar patterns of English. When we struggle with sentences in a new language, reading takes a great deal of cognitive energy. As a result, retaining the gist of the previous sentences in a paragraph or of previous paragraphs in working memory is hard to do as we move through a text. Even when decoding is no longer very effortful, it is still much harder to move along through a text and construct meaning from it as we read in a new language. We might describe this as a real-time “delay”, which has to do with discursive practices. When the rate of processing discursive meaning from text can’t “catch up” with the rate of our decoding, the result may be the strange phenomenon of decoding but not comprehending, as lamented by Richard Rodriguez above.
LEMS, Kristin; MILLER, Leah D.; SORO, Tenema M. Teaching Reading to English Language Learners. Insights from Linguistics. New York and London: 2010, pp. 171-2. (Adapted).
The excerpt discusses what the author calls ‘real-time delay’ in English as a foreign language students’ reading ability. After reading this passage, choose the best alternative that may define this real-time delay. 

1._______________ familiar with diverse research methods in social sciences.
2._______________ speech acts associated with racist ideologies in different sociolinguistic situations and samples, including films, news, music, daily interactions and textbooks.
3._______________ through some samples of cultural and sociolinguistic contexts such as academia to identify stigmatized markers of racist cultural linguistic materiality.
4._______________ that antiracist fight is possible through reflecting, relating, comparing and contrasting different perspectives.
5._______________ on their own linguistic awareness development and agency throughout the course.
MAGRO, José L. Language and Antiracism. An Antiracist Approach to Teaching Language in the USA. Jackson: Multilingual Matters, 2023. (Adapted).
The items mentioned have to do with the outcomes of a foreign language class of which objective is to teach L2 language viewing antiracist practices. The verbs “become”; “identify”; “go”; “demonstrate”; “reflect”, have been extracted from the items. After reading the topics, choose the alternative that presents the verbs that fit the items, respectively. 

En una clase de ELE de nivel B2, el docente propone la siguiente actividad final de unidad:
    “Redacte un texto argumentativo sobre el impacto de las redes sociales en la educación. Se evaluará el uso adecuado de marcadores discursivos”.
Al corregir las producciones, el profesor observa que algunos estudiantes emplean numerosos marcadores (por ejemplo, por otro lado, sin embargo, además, en conclusión), pero el texto presenta problemas de progresión temática y coherencia argumentativa.
A partir de esta situación, seleccione la alternativa que presenta la interpretación pedagógica más adecuada.

Pensando en la perspectiva de la enseñanza del español para fines específicos, Margarita Gómez (2021) explica que “los avances metodológicos han impulsado las solicitudes de cursos de español para fines específicos. En los últimos años, en el campo de la Enseñanza para Fines Específicos (EFE), se han establecido dos grandes grupos: Español para Fines Profesionales (EFP) y Español para Fines Académicos (EFA), aunque algunos autores prefieren hablar de lenguas de especialidad”. Lo importante en esos cursos es saber que se necesita no sólo el conocimiento general de las competencias necesarias a la comunicación, sino también las especificidades de las situaciones concretas de determinados grupos. De acuerdo con esa perspectiva, dadas las afirmaciones,
I. Las lenguas de especialidad, como es el caso del español para fines específicos, se caracterizan no sólo por un léxico especializado, sino también por unidades de fraseológicas específicas, o sea el contexto del uso de la lengua debe necesitar de estrategias y destrezas comunicativas determinadas, además de conocimientos de esa situación de comunicación.
II. Las necesidades de aprendizaje de estos grupos se limitan al dominio del vocabulario propio de su profesión y se caracterizan por realizar actividades mediante géneros del discurso propios, deteniéndose en el vocabulario especializado, pues es la parte más importante de los objetivos.
III. La enseñanza y aprendizaje del español se está reorientando a la pragmática con el fin de satisfacer las necesidades reales de comunicación de los estudiantes que aprenden una segunda lengua. Es decir que la formación en lenguas extranjeras para adultos se centra en la consecución de una competencia comunicativa que capacite a los estudiantes para desenvolverse de forma efectiva y eficaz en contextos académicos y profesionales.
se verifica que es/son correcta/s solo

En un curso de formación de profesores de Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE), una docente propone la siguiente secuencia didáctica con el género comentario en red social:
1. presenta ejemplos auténticos extraídos de plataformas digitales;
2. analiza con los estudiantes el contexto de producción (quién escribe, para quién, con qué intención y en qué soporte);
3. discute marcas lingüísticas propias del género (modalización, uso de emoticonos, estrategias argumentativas breves);
4. solicita la producción de un comentario crítico sobre un tema de actualidad, considerando el destinatario y el propósito comunicativo;
5. promueve una revisión colectiva centrada en la adecuación discursiva y no solo en la corrección gramatical.
A la luz de la concepción sociointeraccionista de los géneros discursivos defendida por Mikhail Bakhtin (2011) y desarrollada en el ámbito brasileño por Luiz Antônio Marcuschi (2002), señale la alternativa que mejor evalúa la coherencia teórico-metodológica de la propuesta.

En la perspectiva sociointeraccionista del lenguaje, los profesores de lengua extranjera deben trabajar con sus alumnos diversos géneros textuales para que los aprendientes establezcan una relación entre el objeto de enseñanza/aprendizaje y la práctica social en su vida (Dantas, 2019).
A partir de esa concepción sociointeraccionista de los géneros, desarrollada por Mikhail Bakhtin (2011) y ampliada en el ámbito educativo brasileño por Luiz Antônio Marcuschi (2002), dadas las afirmaciones sobre los géneros textuales en la enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE),
I. Los géneros textuales son estructuras formales relativamente estables que deben enseñarse como modelos fijos, priorizando su reproducción estructural para garantizar precisión lingüística.
II. En la enseñanza de ELE, el trabajo con géneros implica considerar las condiciones de producción, circulación y recepción del texto, así como su propósito comunicativo y el papel del destinatario.
III. El enfoque por géneros en ELE permite articular reflexión lingüística y actuación comunicativa, ya que los recursos gramaticales se analizan en función de su papel en la construcción de sentidos en contextos sociales específicos.
se verifca que es/son correcta/s solo

Una perspectiva formativa en la evaluación del trabajo con literatura en Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE) implica entender la evaluación no como el punto final del aprendizaje, sino como un proceso continuo, cualitativo y dialogado que se integra en las actividades de enseñanza para mejorar la comprensión lectora y la competencia lingüístico-cultural del estudiante (García y Serrato, 2015).
En ese sentido, en términos de evaluación, una perspectiva formativa en el trabajo con literatura en ELE supone 

    Monteiro (1996, p. 90) clasifica, desde el punto de vista de la forma, los falsos amigos en ortográficos, fonéticos y aparentes. Así, son:
    Falsos amigos ortográficos las palabras que, coincidiendo en ambas lenguas en la ortografía, no coinciden o pueden no coincidir en la pronunciación; falsos amigos fonéticos las palabras que, no coincidiendo en la ortografía, sí lo hacen o pueden hacerlo en la fonética por una pronunciación errónea. Incluimos aquí aquellos que poseen diferentes acentuaciones y falsos amigos aparentes (palabras que no coinciden en la escritura ni en la pronunciación, pero que nos hacen recordar, por el parecido de la forma o por asociaciones léxicas varias, otros significados y sentidos).
Disponível em: https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/EPOS/article/view/17369/14828. Acesso em: 5 fev. 2026. (Adaptado).
Seleccione la alternativa que contempla los tres tipos de falsos amigos presentados en el texto:

Es sabido que los géneros textuales están presentes en cada método de enseñanza de español como lengua extranjera en la actualidad, aunque a menudo con perspectivas diversas. Considerando lo que explica Bronckart (1999, p. 103), “a apropriação dos gêneros é um mecanismo fundamental de socialização, de inserção prática nas atividades comunicativas humanas”, analice las alternativas sobre esa temática y elija la alternativa correcta. 

Considerando los documentos oficiales que orientan la enseñanza de la lengua española en Brasil, respecto a la enseñanza de las variedades lingüísticas del español y sus retos a la enseñanza de la lengua para extranjeros, es correcto afirmar que

Considerando la cuestión de la utilización de la literatura en clases de ELE, observe la siguiente situación:
Una profesora de ELE (nivel B1) decide trabajar un cuento breve en clase. Su objetivo es desarrollar la competencia lingüísticodiscursiva y promover una lectura significativa del texto literario. Después de la lectura inicial, debe definir cómo continuará la secuencia y cómo evaluará el aprendizaje.
¿Cuál de las siguientes propuestas se alinea mejor con una perspectiva formativa e integrada de enseñanza y evaluación del texto literario?

Considere la siguiente definición:
“Los marcadores del discurso son unidades lingüísticas invariables cuya función es señalar la relación que se establece entre dos segmentos textuales. Estas unidades no ejercen función sintáctica alguna, sino que constituyen enlaces supraoracionales que facilitan la cohesión textual y la interpretación de los enunciados” (Diccionario de términos clave de ELE, Centro Virtual Cervantes).
A partir de esta definición, dadas las propuestas didácticas para la enseñanza y evaluación de los marcadores discursivos en ELE,
I. Diseñar actividades centradas exclusivamente en la identificación y clasificación de marcadores según su valor semántico (adición, contraste, consecuencia, etc.), ya que su función principal es enlazar segmentos textuales.
II. Proponer tareas de reescritura en las que el alumnado deba sustituir marcadores y reflexionar sobre los cambios en la interpretación global del texto.
III. Evaluar el uso de marcadores únicamente desde la corrección gramatical, puesto que son unidades invariables y no desempeñan función sintáctica.
IV. Trabajar los marcadores en el marco de géneros discursivos específicos, analizando cómo contribuyen a la cohesión y a la construcción del sentido en cada contexto.
se verifica que son correctas 

Según Cassany (2006, p. 24), “aprender a leer requiere no sólo desarrollar los mencionados procesos cognitivos, sino también adquirir los conocimientos socioculturales particulares de cada discurso, de cada práctica concreta de lectoescritura”.
A partir de esta perspectiva, seleccione la alternativa que interpreta de manera más adecuada las implicaciones didácticas de esta concepción para la enseñanza de la lectura en ELE.

I. Voy a explicártelo con más detalle.
II. Dímelo ahora, por favor.
III. Te lo estoy diciendo, es verdad.
Observe la posición del pronombre clítico lo en cada frase y seleccione la alternativa correcta.