The application of Bakhtinian theories on Second Language reading comprehension: a qualitative case study
        [...] Reading comprehension has been recognized as one of the most important areas in second and foreign language research. Due to the dominance of behaviorism, applied linguistics, and cognitive psychology since 1960s, many research studies focused on the accuracy and speed required for successful comprehension. The epistemological assumptions behind these studies regarded reading as merely a skill-getting process. Readers have to be equipped with the skills and strategies required for successful comprehension, which is mainly based on their performance on multiple-choice tests. Applied linguist Koda (2005) believes that reading depends mainly on the decoding of textual cues: “Successful comprehension is heavily dependent on knowledge of individual word meanings. The widely recognized relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension attests to the crucial role word knowledge plays in text understanding among both L1 and L2 readers” [...].
        This viewpoint is also supported by Hauptman (2000), who mentioned that grammar, vocabulary, and the length of the text determine the level of difficulty of the reading task. According to Mackey‘s (1997) definitions of “good enough reading”, good readers have to strike “a balance between the need for accountability to the text and the need for momentum”. It seems that all it takes to be a good reader is to read accurately with a reasonably fast speed and to have a large vocabulary size.
        I do not object the importance of speed, accuracy, and vocabulary knowledge in second language reading. However, I argue that there are individual differences which are deterministic toward the comprehension of a text. The meanings that readers created from texts and the depth of the meaning actively constructed by them are also critical in the reading comprehension processes. Second language reading comprehension used to acquire a deficit model, which asked questions like “What do learners need to do in order to decode the sentence?” and “What is required to correctly understand the passage?” Alderson‘s famous question on second language reading was raised in 1984, “Is reading in a foreign language a reading problem or a language problem?” But my question is, “Are there any other factors influencing the second language reading process, other than the language barrier and the reading strategies?”.
        On an ideological level, the reason for the emphases on accuracy, speed, and vocabulary size is based on the belief in “abstract objectivism” that
i) Language is a stable, immutable system of normatively identical linguistic forms…; ii) The laws of language are the specifically linguistic laws of connection between linguistic signs within a given, closed linguistic system…; iii) Specifically linguistic connections have nothing in common with ideological values…; and iv) Individual acts of speaking are, from the viewpoint of language, merely fortuitous refractions and variations or plain and simple distortions of normatively identical forms (Voloshinov, 1986, p. 57).
        Researchers in traditional reading studies believe that there is (1) a correct or incorrect interpretation of meaning and (2) a generalized speed that a non-native speaker of English should achieve, and that (3) word meanings are fixed meanings which are traceable in dictionaries. They conclude that, when reading a text in another language, the plight of the reader is to master speed, accuracy, and vocabulary knowledge. All research methods or pedagogies are rooted in certain philosophies. I take on an alternative perspective by referring to the Bakhtin Circle that there can be no correct or incorrect interpretations of a text, and that the dialogic process involved in reading comprehension is crucial toward the active construction of meaning by the reader. By “Bakhtinian theories”, I refer here to the ideas and thoughts proposed by “the principal members of the Bakhtin Circle during the 1920s — Valentin Voloshinov, Pavel Medvedev, and Mikhail Bakhtin”.
        It is true that for beginning second language readers, language barriers can be an obstacle in constructing meaning. However, this case study was conducted with a native speaker and an advanced learner of English with near native proficiency, and thus the language issue is not the most prominent concern; rather, the research focused on the depth of meaning constructed by the two readers, and the dialogic interactions between the readers and the author of the text [...]. 
Available in: https://www.readingmatrix.com/. Acess on: Jan. 27, 2026.
Based on the text, it is correct to affirm that

The humanistic approach to boost self-confidence in English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ oral skills
        […] Oral communication skills are crucial in the process of learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL), with many students wrestling with a lack of self-confidence when it is time to speak in English, whether in academic or personal situations. Speaking is a skill that requires a high level of self-confidence. Lack of confidence will affect students’ learning process because talking in English requires not being shy or rude.
        Grammar and vocabulary are tools that are often used over fluency and proficiency in traditional methods, which has resulted in this problem. When in educational environments there is a neglect of the socio-emotional part at the time of the teaching-learning process, there is a series of negative consequences, such as introversion and lack of motivation to participate in classes […].
        The central question that this research aims to address is how the Humanistic Approach can be used to enhance learners' selfconfidence in EFL contexts. This research work explores the potential of the humanistic approach to increase the self-confidence of English as a foreign language learner, focusing specifically on the development of their oral skills. By investigating the theoretical underpinnings, methodologies, and teacher perceptions, this study aims to provide educators with information about a type of teaching that will help them approach learners and foster a supportive learner-centered environment that can lead to significant improvements in both confidence and oral skills […].
        In the past, when emphasis began to be placed on teaching English as a foreign language, traditional methods were used, which did not produce results in the emergence of meaningful knowledge, as there was no emphasis on interaction with students and the use of appropriate strategies for teaching a new language [...].
        The humanistic approach, based on the principles of empathy, individualization and self-realization, offers a transformative way to address these challenges. By placing the learner at the center of the educational process and fostering an environment of trust and encouragement, this approach emphasizes emotional well-being in language acquisition [...].
        Humanistic Approach, rooted in the principles of Carl Rogers (1969), emphasizes a holistic teaching methodology, focused on fostering a supportive, inclusive and learner-centered learning environment. This approach focuses on students as the authors of their own knowledge, with students having the agency to explore and acquire meaningful knowledge according to their experiences, with the teacher being more of a guide who provides instructions and creates an appropriate and harmonious environment for an effective teaching and learning process, taking into account the affective and social needs of each individual […]. 
Available in: https://repositorio.upse.edu.ec/items/5caf2c50-6627-4f44-87f2-9220acfb1cc8. Acess on: Jan. 25, 2026.
According to the text, 

Read the passage adapted from the introduction of a book titled Language and Antiracism that reflects upon antiracist language education in universities.
INTRODUCTION
    This book’s twofold goal integrates theory and praxis in an attempt to decolonize the curriculum. On the one hand, these pages aim to inform about theoretical aspects of racism and how it manifests in language programs. In this sense, this book is interested in establishing a conversation about topics that may help educators reflect on an antiracist approach to language teaching while providing the fundamental concepts necessary to be familiar with before attempting to implement it. On the other hand, from a more practical approach ‘concerned with the functional process of how the process of decolonization might happen’ (Ade-ojo, 2021: 1), this book aims to provide a theory-based pedagogical rationale and strategy to fight racism in the language classroom through instruction that integrates research-based contents related to the sociopolitical dimension of language (also referred to as sociopolitical contents [SPCs]) aiming to raise critical linguistic awareness (CLA) in relation to racism. The purpose of this book, then, is to combat racism within one institution that has historically perpetuated it: the university.     US educational institutions – and their educators – have the moral duty to transmit ethical beliefs framed within the national, or rather a-national, self-concept of a pluralistic, democratic, egalitarian ideology, as well as the knowledge and skills necessary to thrive, or at least survive, physically, psychologically and socially in our society and across societies in this globalized world. It is our duty as educators to break a system that echoes beliefs such as, quoting Princeton President Woodrow Wilson, ‘[T]he college is not for the majority who carry forward the common labor of the world [but] it is for the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend’ (Veysey, 1970: 245, cited in Cabrera et al., 2017).
MAGRO, José L. Language and Antiracism. An Antiracist Approach to Teaching Language in the USA. Jackson: Multilingual Matters, 2023, pp. 15-6. (Adapted).
Choose the alternative that best completes the sentence: The objective of the book is to decolonize curriculum by 

You and your whole race
Langston Hughes (1901-1967)
You and your whole race.
Look down upon the town in which you live
And be ashamed.
Look down upon white folks
And upon yourselves
And be ashamed
That such supine poverty exists there,
That such stupid ignorance breeds children there
Behind such humble shelters of despair —
That you yourselves have not the sense to care
Nor the manhood to stand up and say
I dare you to come one step nearer, evil world,
With your hands of greed seeking to touch my throat, I dare you to come one step nearer me:
When you can say that
you will be free!
Available in: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/. Acess on: Feb. 3, 2026.

Given the statements regarding plausible interpretations of poem,
I. The lyrical subject calls attention to segregation and social differences.
II. The lyrical subject believes people should not have any more children.
III. The lyrical subject appears to reject passivity and embrace resistance.
IV. “Hands of greed” can be read as a metaphor for dominant groups.
it appears that only the following are correct

    lt is often a delicate decision as to how to provide learners with feedback on their errors when their attention is primarily focused on the content of what they are saying, rather than on the way they are saying it. Interrupting learners ‘in full flight’ to give them corrections seems to run counter to the need to let them experience autonomy. If the teacher is constantly intervening to assist their performance, whether by providing unknown words or correcting their errors, they can hardly be said to be self-regulating. And it may have the counterproductive effect of inhibiting fluency by forcing learners’ attention on to accuracy. Nevertheless, many teachers feel uncomfortable about ‘letting errors go’, even in fluency activities, and there is support for the view that maintaining a focus on form – that is, on formal accuracy – is good for learners in the long run. lt is important, therefore, that such a focus should be effected at minimal cost to the speaker’s sense of being in control. What is agreed is that in cases of correction of oral fluency, the teacher’s corrections, while explicit, are unobtrusive, and these are picked up by the learners with no real loss of fluency: ln the above extract, the teacher's interventions should be economical and effective, and the conversational flow should not threatened. However, it could be argued that such overt monitoring deprives the learners of opportunities to take more responsibility for their own monitoring and selfrepair. This is especially the case with regard to their mistakes, as opposed to their errors. By mistake is meant the learners’ momentary failure to apply what they already know, due mainly to the demands of online processing. An error, on the other hand, represents a gap in the speaker’s knowledge of the system. Mistakes can usually be self-corrected, but errors cannot. A deft hint to the learner that they have used a present verb form instead of a past one, for example, may be all that is needed to encourage selfcorrection. And self-correction, even if prompted by the teacher, is one step nearer self-regulation and the ultimate goal of full autonomy. Sometimes, however, the learner’s message is simply unintelligible, and some kind of more obtrusive intervention is necessary to repair the breakdown. ln this case, an intervention that is perceived by the learner as repair is likely to be less inhibiting than one that is perceived of as correction. Repair is facilitative, while correction can be construed negatively, as judgmental. In repairing, the teacher's intervention takes the form of a conversational repair, one that is consistent with the meaning-orientation of the interaction
THORNBURY, Scott. How to Teach Speaking. Cambridge: Longman, 2005, pp. 91-2. (Adapted).
One of the main problems when dealing with oral fluency is to know if a student should be corrected when interacting or after it. After reading this passage about feedback and correction in fluency, select the alternative that agrees with the point of view discussed in the passage.

In the book titled Literacies by Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope, the authors mention the roles of teachers and students facing the challenges of reading in a technological environment. According to the authors, “Communication is rapidly changing. With the rise of new technologies and media, the way we make and transmit meaning is shifting significantly”. For this reason the profile of students have changed considerably from passive actors in the reading and interpreting information to more active meaning-makers, considering the various forms of access to information. New media environment “focuses not only on reading and writing, but also on other modes of communication, including oral, visual, audio, gestural and spatial”.
Below you will find a list of actions related to reading and interpreting texts both in the new and old environments. Read the actions and decide which action relates to which kind of environment. Then choose the correct alternative that corresponds to the right choice.
1. Appreciating texts of prestige ‘literary’ value must be the rule for right interpretation.
2. Innovations, risk-taking and diversity in meaning-making are aspects to be regarded by teachers.
3. It must be considered that a wide and diverse range of texts exists and should be valued.
4. Reading means decoding messages transmitted by written texts.
5. Teaching students to read means dealing solely with canonic British and American production.
6. The fundamentals of literacy should be understanding messages beyond messages.
7. The many social languages and variations in communication must be considered.
8. There are multiple forms of reading a word in multimodal communication.
9. Understanding and using correct spelling and grammar is good communication.
10. We should read only standard, educated English used in homogeneous situations.
KALANTZIS, Mary; COPE, Bill. Literacies. Melbourne: CUP, 2012, p.19. (Adapted). 

        Even if a foreign language student is an able decoder in English, the level of effort required to read for meaning in real time academic situations can be a monumental task. Look how author Richard Rodriguez (1982) describes his own reading in English as a new language: “Most books, of course, I barely understood. While reading Plato’s Republic, I needed to keep looking at the book jacket to remind myself what the text was about”. One might ask how Rodriguez could be reading a book at such an advanced level in English but still not reading with comprehension. How could he read and yet not read? And what is it that makes reading in a new language so overwhelming? Perhaps part of the answer can be found in the less extensive listening vocabulary upon which foreign language students can draw when reading written words, they have never seen before. Part of it may result from incomplete knowledge of the syntax and grammar patterns of English. When we struggle with sentences in a new language, reading takes a great deal of cognitive energy. As a result, retaining the gist of the previous sentences in a paragraph or of previous paragraphs in working memory is hard to do as we move through a text. Even when decoding is no longer very effortful, it is still much harder to move along through a text and construct meaning from it as we read in a new language. We might describe this as a real-time “delay”, which has to do with discursive practices. When the rate of processing discursive meaning from text can’t “catch up” with the rate of our decoding, the result may be the strange phenomenon of decoding but not comprehending, as lamented by Richard Rodriguez above.
LEMS, Kristin; MILLER, Leah D.; SORO, Tenema M. Teaching Reading to English Language Learners. Insights from Linguistics. New York and London: 2010, pp. 171-2. (Adapted).
The excerpt discusses what the author calls ‘real-time delay’ in English as a foreign language students’ reading ability. After reading this passage, choose the best alternative that may define this real-time delay. 

1._______________ familiar with diverse research methods in social sciences.
2._______________ speech acts associated with racist ideologies in different sociolinguistic situations and samples, including films, news, music, daily interactions and textbooks.
3._______________ through some samples of cultural and sociolinguistic contexts such as academia to identify stigmatized markers of racist cultural linguistic materiality.
4._______________ that antiracist fight is possible through reflecting, relating, comparing and contrasting different perspectives.
5._______________ on their own linguistic awareness development and agency throughout the course.
MAGRO, José L. Language and Antiracism. An Antiracist Approach to Teaching Language in the USA. Jackson: Multilingual Matters, 2023. (Adapted).
The items mentioned have to do with the outcomes of a foreign language class of which objective is to teach L2 language viewing antiracist practices. The verbs “become”; “identify”; “go”; “demonstrate”; “reflect”, have been extracted from the items. After reading the topics, choose the alternative that presents the verbs that fit the items, respectively. 

CHAPTER 2
Adult Literacy and Popular Libraries
        To speak of adult literacy and popular libraries is to speak of the problems of reading and writing: not reading and writing words in and of themselves, as if the reading and writing of words did not imply another reading, anterior to and simultaneous with the first, the reading itself. The critical comprehension of literacy, which involves the equally critical comprehension of reading, demands the critical comprehension of reading, demands the critical comprehension of the library. However, upon speaking of a critical vision, authenticated in a practice of the same critical form of literacy, I not only recognize but also emphasize the existence of a contrary practice, an understanding that, in an essay published a long time ago, I called naive.
        It would be tiresome to insist on points referred to on other occasions when I discussed the problems of literacy. Nevertheless, at the risk of repeating myself, I will try to clarify or reclarify what I call the critical practice and understanding of literacy, as opposed to the naive and so-called “astute” practice and understanding. The naive and astute, while identical from the objective point of view, differentiate themselves with respect to the subjectivity of their agents.
        The myth of the neutrality of education — which leads to the negation of the political nature of the educational process, regarding it only as a task we do in the service of humanity in the abstract sense — is the point of departure for our understanding of the fundamental differences between a naive practice, an astute practice, and a truly critical practice.
        From the critical point of view, it is as impossible to deny the political nature of the educational process as it is to deny the educational character of the political act. This does not mean, however, that the political nature of the educational process and the educational character of the political act drain the understanding of that process and this act. Just as a neutral education that claims to be at the service of humanity, of human beings in general, is impossible, so is a political practice devoid of educational meaning. FREIRE, Paulo; MACEDO, Maldonado. Literacy: Reading the Word and the World. London: Routledge, 2005, p. 46. (Adapted). 
After reading this excerpt from chapter 2 of the book titled Literacy: Reading the Word and the World, select the correct alternative that completes the sentence: Reading is

From a decolonial perspective, select the correct interpretation of the poem. 

Respecto a la colocación pronominal, seleccione la alternativa correcta.

    Los enfoques de base comunicativa vienen destacando desde sus inicios la importancia de la cultura en la enseñanzaaprendizaje de la lengua y no cabe ninguna duda de que el uso de la lengua requiere una competencia sociocultural, de que la adecuación no es solo lingüística, sino también sociopragmática y cultural. Saber usar una lengua implica conocer sus referentes culturales, implica saber hacer y saber ser, saber comportarse y saber interpretar el comportamiento de los demás.
NÍKLEVA, Dimitrinka G. Componente cultural e intercultural. In: JIMÉNEZ CALDERÓN, Francisco; RUFAT SÁNCHEZ, Anna (org.). Manual de formación para profesores de ELE. Madrid: SGEL, 2019. p. 211-232. (Fragmento).
Considere el texto y las siguientes afirmaciones sobre propuestas de actividades bajo la perspectiva de la educación lingüística intercultural en la clase de español como lengua extranjera:
I. la competencia comunicativa se alcanza con el conocimiento de las normas de conducta de la cultura meta; con la evolución de los métodos y enfoques, resta la importancia del dominio del código lingüístico;
II. el desarrollo de la competencia sociocultural debe iniciarse en niveles intermedios o avanzados, cuando el aprendiz maneja mejor el código lingüístico;
III. el enfoque comunicativo ha evolucionado a través del tiempo para comportar, además de las cuatro destrezas, la competencia sociocultural;
IV. la competencia comunicativa, desde sus principios, conlleva el aprendizaje del código lingüístico y de la competencia sociocultural de manera indisociable.
De las afirmaciones, es/son correcta/s solo

En una clase de ELE de nivel B2, el docente propone la siguiente actividad final de unidad:
    “Redacte un texto argumentativo sobre el impacto de las redes sociales en la educación. Se evaluará el uso adecuado de marcadores discursivos”.
Al corregir las producciones, el profesor observa que algunos estudiantes emplean numerosos marcadores (por ejemplo, por otro lado, sin embargo, además, en conclusión), pero el texto presenta problemas de progresión temática y coherencia argumentativa.
A partir de esta situación, seleccione la alternativa que presenta la interpretación pedagógica más adecuada.

En los enfoques contemporáneos del análisis del discurso, los marcadores no se conciben únicamente como elementos de cohesión textual, sino como instrucciones procedimentales que orientan la interpretación del oyente o lector. Su función no consiste en aportar contenido conceptual nuevo, sino en guiar la organización informativa, la relación argumentativa y la actitud del hablante frente a lo enunciado. Desde esta perspectiva, su valor depende del contexto, del género discursivo y de la intención comunicativa (Portolés, 1998).
A partir del fragmento, seleccione la alternativa que presenta una interpretación teórica y didácticamente coherente con la perspectiva expuesta.

Pensando en la perspectiva de la enseñanza del español para fines específicos, Margarita Gómez (2021) explica que “los avances metodológicos han impulsado las solicitudes de cursos de español para fines específicos. En los últimos años, en el campo de la Enseñanza para Fines Específicos (EFE), se han establecido dos grandes grupos: Español para Fines Profesionales (EFP) y Español para Fines Académicos (EFA), aunque algunos autores prefieren hablar de lenguas de especialidad”. Lo importante en esos cursos es saber que se necesita no sólo el conocimiento general de las competencias necesarias a la comunicación, sino también las especificidades de las situaciones concretas de determinados grupos. De acuerdo con esa perspectiva, dadas las afirmaciones,
I. Las lenguas de especialidad, como es el caso del español para fines específicos, se caracterizan no sólo por un léxico especializado, sino también por unidades de fraseológicas específicas, o sea el contexto del uso de la lengua debe necesitar de estrategias y destrezas comunicativas determinadas, además de conocimientos de esa situación de comunicación.
II. Las necesidades de aprendizaje de estos grupos se limitan al dominio del vocabulario propio de su profesión y se caracterizan por realizar actividades mediante géneros del discurso propios, deteniéndose en el vocabulario especializado, pues es la parte más importante de los objetivos.
III. La enseñanza y aprendizaje del español se está reorientando a la pragmática con el fin de satisfacer las necesidades reales de comunicación de los estudiantes que aprenden una segunda lengua. Es decir que la formación en lenguas extranjeras para adultos se centra en la consecución de una competencia comunicativa que capacite a los estudiantes para desenvolverse de forma efectiva y eficaz en contextos académicos y profesionales.
se verifica que es/son correcta/s solo

En un curso de formación de profesores de Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE), una docente propone la siguiente secuencia didáctica con el género comentario en red social:
1. presenta ejemplos auténticos extraídos de plataformas digitales;
2. analiza con los estudiantes el contexto de producción (quién escribe, para quién, con qué intención y en qué soporte);
3. discute marcas lingüísticas propias del género (modalización, uso de emoticonos, estrategias argumentativas breves);
4. solicita la producción de un comentario crítico sobre un tema de actualidad, considerando el destinatario y el propósito comunicativo;
5. promueve una revisión colectiva centrada en la adecuación discursiva y no solo en la corrección gramatical.
A la luz de la concepción sociointeraccionista de los géneros discursivos defendida por Mikhail Bakhtin (2011) y desarrollada en el ámbito brasileño por Luiz Antônio Marcuschi (2002), señale la alternativa que mejor evalúa la coherencia teórico-metodológica de la propuesta.

En la perspectiva sociointeraccionista del lenguaje, los profesores de lengua extranjera deben trabajar con sus alumnos diversos géneros textuales para que los aprendientes establezcan una relación entre el objeto de enseñanza/aprendizaje y la práctica social en su vida (Dantas, 2019).
A partir de esa concepción sociointeraccionista de los géneros, desarrollada por Mikhail Bakhtin (2011) y ampliada en el ámbito educativo brasileño por Luiz Antônio Marcuschi (2002), dadas las afirmaciones sobre los géneros textuales en la enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE),
I. Los géneros textuales son estructuras formales relativamente estables que deben enseñarse como modelos fijos, priorizando su reproducción estructural para garantizar precisión lingüística.
II. En la enseñanza de ELE, el trabajo con géneros implica considerar las condiciones de producción, circulación y recepción del texto, así como su propósito comunicativo y el papel del destinatario.
III. El enfoque por géneros en ELE permite articular reflexión lingüística y actuación comunicativa, ya que los recursos gramaticales se analizan en función de su papel en la construcción de sentidos en contextos sociales específicos.
se verifca que es/son correcta/s solo

Una perspectiva formativa en la evaluación del trabajo con literatura en Español como Lengua Extranjera (ELE) implica entender la evaluación no como el punto final del aprendizaje, sino como un proceso continuo, cualitativo y dialogado que se integra en las actividades de enseñanza para mejorar la comprensión lectora y la competencia lingüístico-cultural del estudiante (García y Serrato, 2015).
En ese sentido, en términos de evaluación, una perspectiva formativa en el trabajo con literatura en ELE supone 

    Monteiro (1996, p. 90) clasifica, desde el punto de vista de la forma, los falsos amigos en ortográficos, fonéticos y aparentes. Así, son:
    Falsos amigos ortográficos las palabras que, coincidiendo en ambas lenguas en la ortografía, no coinciden o pueden no coincidir en la pronunciación; falsos amigos fonéticos las palabras que, no coincidiendo en la ortografía, sí lo hacen o pueden hacerlo en la fonética por una pronunciación errónea. Incluimos aquí aquellos que poseen diferentes acentuaciones y falsos amigos aparentes (palabras que no coinciden en la escritura ni en la pronunciación, pero que nos hacen recordar, por el parecido de la forma o por asociaciones léxicas varias, otros significados y sentidos).
Disponível em: https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/EPOS/article/view/17369/14828. Acesso em: 5 fev. 2026. (Adaptado).
Seleccione la alternativa que contempla los tres tipos de falsos amigos presentados en el texto:

El diccionario en línea de la Real Academia Española define el “leísmo” como el “empleo de las formas ‘le’ y ‘les’ del pronombre átono para el complemento directo, en lugar de las formas ‘lo’, ‘la’, ‘los’ y ‘las’”. Dadas las declaraciones que presenta los casos de leísmo aceptos por la norma,
I. He comprado un cuadro, pero aún no le he colgado.
II. No le gusta que le llamen poeta.
III. A la niña le encontraron después de las búsquedas.
IV. Cuando habló Luis, todos le escucharon con atención.
se verifica que son corretas solo