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Uma indicação da expansão demográfica do Ocidente cristão, a partir de meados do século X, está no acentuado crescimento da população urbana naquele período. Enquanto por volta do ano 1 000 talvez não existisse na Europa católica nenhuma cidade com uma população de 10 000 habitantes, no século XIII havia 55 cidades com um número de habitantes superior àquele: duas na Inglaterra, seis na Península Ibérica, oito na Alemanha, 18 na França e Países Baixos, 21 na Itália. Esta última era não apenas a região mais urbanizada do Ocidente como também a que possuía as maiores cidades.
(Hilário Franco Júnior,
A Idade Média, nascimento do Ocidente, p. 23. Adaptado)
Para Hilário Franco Júnior, outro indício dessa expansão demográfica
La nouvelle historire é o título de uma coleção de ensaios editada pelo renomado medievalista francês Jacques Le Goff. A expressão “a nova história” é mais bem conhecida na França e representa a história escrita como uma reação deliberada contra o “paradigma” tradicional, que seria convenientemente descrito como “história rankeana”.
(Peter Burke, Abertura: a nova história, seu passado e seu futuro.
Em: Peter Burke (org.), A escrita da História:
novas perspectivas, p. 9-10. Adaptado)
O contraste entre a antiga e a nova história pode ser resumido em alguns pontos, entre os quais, é correto considerar que, segundo o paradigma tradicional,
Em seu livro mais influente, A economia antiga, publicado em 1973, Moses Finley fez questão de expor seus pressupostos teóricos. Seus textos não eram apenas um relato ingênuo do que “aconteceu” na História, mas interpretações colocadas no contexto de um debate científico e político mais amplo, que ultrapassava em muito as fronteiras especializadas da História Antiga.
Nos textos de Finley, as Histórias de Grécia e Roma aparecem unificadas. Elas formam um mundo antigo, greco-romano, diferente do Antigo Oriente Próximo.
(Norberto Luiz Guarinello, História Antiga, p. 36. Adaptado)
Para Finley, a unidade do mundo greco-romano efetiva-se pela
Os historiadores estruturais mostraram que a narrativa tradicional passa por cima de aspectos importantes do passado, que ela simplesmente é incapaz de conciliar, desde a estrutura econômica e social até à experiência e os modos de pensar das pessoas comuns.
(Peter Burke, A história dos acontecimentos e o renascimento
da narrativa. Em: Peter Burke (org.), A escrita da História:
novas perspectivas, p. 338. Adaptado)
Nesse debate, segundo Peter Burke, os historiadores defensores da narrativa observam que a análise de estruturas
No ensaio introdutório desta obra, Ciro Flamarion Cardoso apresenta o quadro epistemológico geral em que se inserem os vários territórios do historiador e os campos de investigação contemplados neste livro, suas potencialidades, dilemas e impasses. Ao fazer um balanço geral da historiografia nos últimos 40 ou 50 anos, Cardoso identificou com nitidez dois grandes paradigmas: o iluminista, partidário de uma história científica e racional e, portanto, convencido da existência de uma realidade social global a ser historicamente explicada.
(Ronaldo Vainfas, Caminhos e descaminhos da História.
Em: Ciro Flamarion Cardoso e Ronaldo Vainfas,
Domínios da História: ensaios de teoria e metodologia. Adaptado)
O segundo paradigma, que completa a ideia exposta no excerto, o pós-moderno, mostra-se
A história vista como “ciência do passado” e “ciência do presente” ao mesmo tempo: a história-problema é uma iluminação do presente, uma forma de consciência que permite ao historiador – homem de seu tempo –, bem como aos seus contemporâneos a que se dirige, uma compreensão melhor das lutas de hoje, ao mesmo tempo que o conhecimento do presente é condição sine qua non da cognoscibilidade de outros períodos históricos.
(Ciro Flamarion Cardoso, História e paradigmas rivais.
Em: Ciro Flamarion Cardoso e Ronaldo Vainfas (org.),
Domínios da História: ensaios de teoria e metodologia, p. 28)
No excerto, Ciro Flamarion Cardoso faz referência à
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O descobridor das coisas
A gente vinha de mãos dadas, sem pressa de nada pela rua. Totoca vinha me ensinando a vida. E eu estava muito contente porque meu irmão mais velho estava me dando a mão e ensinando as coisas. Mas ensinando as coisas fora de casa. Porque em casa eu aprendia descobrindo sozinho e fazendo sozinho, fazia errado e fazendo errado acabava sempre tomando umas palmadas. Até bem pouco tempo ninguém me batia. Mas depois descobriram as coisas e vivem dizendo que eu era o cão, que eu era capeta, gato ruço de mau pelo. Não queria saber disso. Se não estivesse na rua eu começava a cantar. Cantar era bonito. Totoca sabia fazer outra coisa além de cantar, assobiar. Mas eu por mais que imitasse, não saía nada. Ele me animou dizendo que era assim mesmo, que eu ainda não tinha boca de soprador. Mas como eu não podia cantar por fora, fui cantando por dentro. Aquilo era esquisito, mas se tornava muito gostoso. E eu estava me lembrando de uma música que Mamãe cantava quando eu era bem pequenininho. Ela ficava no tanque, com um pano amarrado na cabeça para tapar o sol. Tinha um avental amarrado na barriga e ficava horas e horas, metendo a mão na água, fazendo sabão virar muita espuma. Depois torcia a roupa e ia até a corda. Prendia tudo na corda e suspendia o bambu. Ela fazia igualzinho com todas as roupas. Estava lavando a roupa da casa do Dr. Faulhaber para ajudar nas despesas da casa. Mamãe era alta, magra, mas muito bonita. Tinha uma cor bem queimada e os cabelos pretos e lisos. Quando ela deixava os cabelos sem prender, davam até na cintura. Mas bonito era quando ela cantava e eu ficava junto aprendendo.
(José Mauro de Vasconcelos. O meu pé de laranja lima, 1975. Adaptado)
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One pathway for converting explicit to implicit knowledge is suggested by skill acquisition theory, a branch of cognitive science studying how people develop skills. In this theory, knowledge is first seen to be declarative (conscious); then, through practice and the application of learning strategies, declarative knowledge becomes proceduralized so that it becomes automatic. Automatic processes are quick and do not require attention or conscious awareness. Many second/ foreign language learners memorize and practice vocabulary items or “chunks” of language such as greetings, idioms or collocations. Frequent practice in using these forms helps the language items to become automatic in the sense that the learner can use them quickly and unconsciously.
Pienemann (1989) proposes that second/ foreign language learners will not acquire a new structure until they are developmentallly ready to do so. If there were no connection between the development of explicit knowledge about a grammar point and the eventual restructuring of the unconscious linguistic system to accommodate the point in the learner’s interlanguage, then, indeed, grammar instruction would not be of much use. However, it has been suggested that there is a connection, so grammar instruction is ultimately useful. Further, practice of language points can lead to automatization, thus bypassing natural order teachability considerations.
(FOTOS, Sandra. Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction.
In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign
language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002.
Adaptado274)
Dentro dos estudos sobre aquisição e aprendizagem de línguas, o termo “interlanguage” é compreendido como:
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One pathway for converting explicit to implicit knowledge is suggested by skill acquisition theory, a branch of cognitive science studying how people develop skills. In this theory, knowledge is first seen to be declarative (conscious); then, through practice and the application of learning strategies, declarative knowledge becomes proceduralized so that it becomes automatic. Automatic processes are quick and do not require attention or conscious awareness. Many second/ foreign language learners memorize and practice vocabulary items or “chunks” of language such as greetings, idioms or collocations. Frequent practice in using these forms helps the language items to become automatic in the sense that the learner can use them quickly and unconsciously.
Pienemann (1989) proposes that second/ foreign language learners will not acquire a new structure until they are developmentallly ready to do so. If there were no connection between the development of explicit knowledge about a grammar point and the eventual restructuring of the unconscious linguistic system to accommodate the point in the learner’s interlanguage, then, indeed, grammar instruction would not be of much use. However, it has been suggested that there is a connection, so grammar instruction is ultimately useful. Further, practice of language points can lead to automatization, thus bypassing natural order teachability considerations.
(FOTOS, Sandra. Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction.
In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign
language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002.
Adaptado274)
Depreende-se da leitura do primeiro parágrafo que a aprendizagem de “collocations”
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One pathway for converting explicit to implicit knowledge is suggested by skill acquisition theory, a branch of cognitive science studying how people develop skills. In this theory, knowledge is first seen to be declarative (conscious); then, through practice and the application of learning strategies, declarative knowledge becomes proceduralized so that it becomes automatic. Automatic processes are quick and do not require attention or conscious awareness. Many second/ foreign language learners memorize and practice vocabulary items or “chunks” of language such as greetings, idioms or collocations. Frequent practice in using these forms helps the language items to become automatic in the sense that the learner can use them quickly and unconsciously.
Pienemann (1989) proposes that second/ foreign language learners will not acquire a new structure until they are developmentallly ready to do so. If there were no connection between the development of explicit knowledge about a grammar point and the eventual restructuring of the unconscious linguistic system to accommodate the point in the learner’s interlanguage, then, indeed, grammar instruction would not be of much use. However, it has been suggested that there is a connection, so grammar instruction is ultimately useful. Further, practice of language points can lead to automatization, thus bypassing natural order teachability considerations.
(FOTOS, Sandra. Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction.
In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign
language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002.
Adaptado274)
The second half of the first paragraph, starting “Many second/foreign language learners memorize and practice vocabulary”,
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This study reviews the findings of earlier translanguaging research in Saudi Arabia. Notably, Saudi Arabia is striving to adjust to the multilingual immigrant workforce on its soil, while encouraging a larger role for its people on other soils. In this changed paradigm, strengthening the Saudis’ English communicative proficiency is an emergent need. To make pertinent pedagogical recommendations on the use of translanguaging in language learning, the study gathered data using a questionnaire administered to 72 participants from King Faisal University. All participants were given fictitious names in order to protect their anonymity. Findings revealed that the Saudi EFL students strongly support the use of translanguaging in the EFL classrooms, but they are worried that it may not bring their proficiency to the desirable standard. They, thus, showed greater faith in the conventional language learning approach, viz., using only English in the EFL classes. The study concluded that learners‟ exposure to translanguaging is apparently not adequate for them to fully appreciate its benefits, and teachers who, so far, strictly keep to the English-only approach, too need to be oriented and trained in its use.
(Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 18(Special Issue 1),
556-568; 2022. Adaptado)
Read the sentence taken from the text: “All participants were given fictitious names in order to protect their anonymity.” The sentence illustrates:
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This study reviews the findings of earlier translanguaging research in Saudi Arabia. Notably, Saudi Arabia is striving to adjust to the multilingual immigrant workforce on its soil, while encouraging a larger role for its people on other soils. In this changed paradigm, strengthening the Saudis’ English communicative proficiency is an emergent need. To make pertinent pedagogical recommendations on the use of translanguaging in language learning, the study gathered data using a questionnaire administered to 72 participants from King Faisal University. All participants were given fictitious names in order to protect their anonymity. Findings revealed that the Saudi EFL students strongly support the use of translanguaging in the EFL classrooms, but they are worried that it may not bring their proficiency to the desirable standard. They, thus, showed greater faith in the conventional language learning approach, viz., using only English in the EFL classes. The study concluded that learners‟ exposure to translanguaging is apparently not adequate for them to fully appreciate its benefits, and teachers who, so far, strictly keep to the English-only approach, too need to be oriented and trained in its use.
(Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 18(Special Issue 1),
556-568; 2022. Adaptado)
Assinale a alternativa que apresenta, corretamente, verbo que segue o mesmo processo de derivação morfológica encontrado em “encourage” e “strenghten”.
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This study reviews the findings of earlier translanguaging research in Saudi Arabia. Notably, Saudi Arabia is striving to adjust to the multilingual immigrant workforce on its soil, while encouraging a larger role for its people on other soils. In this changed paradigm, strengthening the Saudis’ English communicative proficiency is an emergent need. To make pertinent pedagogical recommendations on the use of translanguaging in language learning, the study gathered data using a questionnaire administered to 72 participants from King Faisal University. All participants were given fictitious names in order to protect their anonymity. Findings revealed that the Saudi EFL students strongly support the use of translanguaging in the EFL classrooms, but they are worried that it may not bring their proficiency to the desirable standard. They, thus, showed greater faith in the conventional language learning approach, viz., using only English in the EFL classes. The study concluded that learners‟ exposure to translanguaging is apparently not adequate for them to fully appreciate its benefits, and teachers who, so far, strictly keep to the English-only approach, too need to be oriented and trained in its use.
(Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 18(Special Issue 1),
556-568; 2022. Adaptado)
Os “gêneros textuais”, dentre eles os gêneros acadêmicos, têm sido foco frequente em materiais didáticos para o ensino-aprendizagem de Língua Inglesa no Brasil. Tal abordagem para o ensino da língua estrangeira justifica-se uma vez que:
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This study reviews the findings of earlier translanguaging research in Saudi Arabia. Notably, Saudi Arabia is striving to adjust to the multilingual immigrant workforce on its soil, while encouraging a larger role for its people on other soils. In this changed paradigm, strengthening the Saudis’ English communicative proficiency is an emergent need. To make pertinent pedagogical recommendations on the use of translanguaging in language learning, the study gathered data using a questionnaire administered to 72 participants from King Faisal University. All participants were given fictitious names in order to protect their anonymity. Findings revealed that the Saudi EFL students strongly support the use of translanguaging in the EFL classrooms, but they are worried that it may not bring their proficiency to the desirable standard. They, thus, showed greater faith in the conventional language learning approach, viz., using only English in the EFL classes. The study concluded that learners‟ exposure to translanguaging is apparently not adequate for them to fully appreciate its benefits, and teachers who, so far, strictly keep to the English-only approach, too need to be oriented and trained in its use.
(Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 18(Special Issue 1),
556-568; 2022. Adaptado)
This academic text is
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It is adequate do say that pedagogical practices “become less and less preoccupied with limited and unified actions typical of content transmission in teaching-learning processes, and increase the instances of social practices that create possibilities of student engagement in the world.” (Magalhães & Carrijo, 2019, p. 215). We could broaden this and state that it is essential that education be less concerned with limited and limiting actions that look at the other - the student in general - but especially the student who is somehow different from the educators’ or the policy makers’ expectations as just that: a monolith of difference. This notion of difference as a monolith makes us see all SIEN1 students as one single individual or block of individuals (i.e., as if they all had the same features); all deaf students as another monolith; all students in the autism spectrum as still another. But we are not equal. People vary in every aspect of humanity (the way they dress, speak, eat, think, learn). As Adichie (2009) stated in her famous TED: “The single story has a consequence: It robs people of dignity. It makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult.”
(Magalhães, M.C.C. et al. Viable-transformative inclusion: diverse means of agency by an adolescent with Specific Intellectual Educational Needs (SIEN) and his educators. In: Delta: Documentação de Estudos em Linguística Teórica e Aplicada, Volume: 38, Número: 1. 2022)
1SIEN students: students with specific intellectual educational needs
In the quotation at the end of the paragraph “The single story has a consequence: It robs people of dignity”, the bolded noun phrase refers to
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It is adequate do say that pedagogical practices “become less and less preoccupied with limited and unified actions typical of content transmission in teaching-learning processes, and increase the instances of social practices that create possibilities of student engagement in the world.” (Magalhães & Carrijo, 2019, p. 215). We could broaden this and state that it is essential that education be less concerned with limited and limiting actions that look at the other - the student in general - but especially the student who is somehow different from the educators’ or the policy makers’ expectations as just that: a monolith of difference. This notion of difference as a monolith makes us see all SIEN1 students as one single individual or block of individuals (i.e., as if they all had the same features); all deaf students as another monolith; all students in the autism spectrum as still another. But we are not equal. People vary in every aspect of humanity (the way they dress, speak, eat, think, learn). As Adichie (2009) stated in her famous TED: “The single story has a consequence: It robs people of dignity. It makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult.”
(Magalhães, M.C.C. et al. Viable-transformative inclusion: diverse means of agency by an adolescent with Specific Intellectual Educational Needs (SIEN) and his educators. In: Delta: Documentação de Estudos em Linguística Teórica e Aplicada, Volume: 38, Número: 1. 2022)
1SIEN students: students with specific intellectual educational needs
“Limited and unified actions typical of content transmission in teaching-learning processes” characterize courses which
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It is adequate do say that pedagogical practices “become less and less preoccupied with limited and unified actions typical of content transmission in teaching-learning processes, and increase the instances of social practices that create possibilities of student engagement in the world.” (Magalhães & Carrijo, 2019, p. 215). We could broaden this and state that it is essential that education be less concerned with limited and limiting actions that look at the other - the student in general - but especially the student who is somehow different from the educators’ or the policy makers’ expectations as just that: a monolith of difference. This notion of difference as a monolith makes us see all SIEN1 students as one single individual or block of individuals (i.e., as if they all had the same features); all deaf students as another monolith; all students in the autism spectrum as still another. But we are not equal. People vary in every aspect of humanity (the way they dress, speak, eat, think, learn). As Adichie (2009) stated in her famous TED: “The single story has a consequence: It robs people of dignity. It makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult.”
(Magalhães, M.C.C. et al. Viable-transformative inclusion: diverse means of agency by an adolescent with Specific Intellectual Educational Needs (SIEN) and his educators. In: Delta: Documentação de Estudos em Linguística Teórica e Aplicada, Volume: 38, Número: 1. 2022)
1SIEN students: students with specific intellectual educational needs
In the paragraph, the authors
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Morley (1999) has outlined four important goals for pronunciation instruction: functional intelligibility, functional communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech monitoring abilities.
For our purposes, intelligibility is defined as spoken English in which an accent, if present, is not distracting to the listener. Since learners rarely achieve an accent-free pronunciation, we are setting our students up for failure if we strive for nativelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent should not be our goal; in fact, some practitioners use the term accent addition as opposed to accent reduction to acknowledge the individual’s first language (L1) identity without demanding it be sublimated in the new second language (L2).
Functional communicability is the learner’s ability to function successfully within the specific communicative situations he or she faces. And, as they gain communicative skill, they also need to gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood.
Bv teaching learners to pay attention to their own speech as well as that of others, we help our learners make better use of the input they receive. Good learners “attend” to certain aspects of the speech they hear and then try to imitate it. Speech monitoring activities help to focus learners’ attention on such features both in our courses and beyond them.
(Goodwin, Janet. Teaching Pronunciation. In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002. Adaptado)
Mark the alternative in which the letters ea are pronounced just as in feature (paragraph 4).
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Morley (1999) has outlined four important goals for pronunciation instruction: functional intelligibility, functional communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech monitoring abilities.
For our purposes, intelligibility is defined as spoken English in which an accent, if present, is not distracting to the listener. Since learners rarely achieve an accent-free pronunciation, we are setting our students up for failure if we strive for nativelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent should not be our goal; in fact, some practitioners use the term accent addition as opposed to accent reduction to acknowledge the individual’s first language (L1) identity without demanding it be sublimated in the new second language (L2).
Functional communicability is the learner’s ability to function successfully within the specific communicative situations he or she faces. And, as they gain communicative skill, they also need to gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood.
Bv teaching learners to pay attention to their own speech as well as that of others, we help our learners make better use of the input they receive. Good learners “attend” to certain aspects of the speech they hear and then try to imitate it. Speech monitoring activities help to focus learners’ attention on such features both in our courses and beyond them.
(Goodwin, Janet. Teaching Pronunciation. In Marianne Celce-Murcia. 3rd ed. Teaching English as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2002. Adaptado)
It is possible to understand from the fourth paragraph that, by providing learners with speech monitoring activities which will help them act beyond the formal courses they attend, teachers contribute directly to learners’
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