Cryptography is the process of hiding or coding information so that only the person a message was intended for can read it. The art of cryptography has been used to code messages for thousands of years and continues to be used in bank cards, computer passwords, and ecommerce. Modern cryptography techniques include algorithms and ciphers that enable the encryption and decryption of information, such as 128‑bit and 256‑bit encryption keys. Modern ciphers, such as the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), are considered virtually unbreakable.

A common cryptography definition is the practice of coding information to ensure only the person that a message was written for can read and process the information. This cybersecurity practice, also known as cryptology, combines various disciplines like computer science, engineering, and mathematics to create complex codes that hide the true meaning of a message. Cryptography can be traced all the way back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics but remains vital to securing communication and information in transit and preventing it from being read by untrusted parties. It uses algorithms and mathematical concepts to transform messages into difficult‑to‑decipher codes through techniques like cryptographic keys and digital signing to protect data privacy, credit card transactions, email, and web browsing.

Cryptography remains important to protecting data and users, ensuring confidentiality, and preventing cyber criminals from intercepting sensitive corporate information. Individuals and organizations use cryptography on a daily basis to protect their privacy and keep their conversations and data confidential. The technique ensures confidentiality by encrypting sent messages using an algorithm with a key only known to the sender and recipient. A common example of this is the messaging tool WhatsApp, which encrypts conversations between people to ensure they cannot be hacked or intercepted. It also secures browsing, such as with virtual private networks (VPNs), which use encrypted tunnels, asymmetric encryption, and public and private shared keys.

Similar to how cryptography can confirm the authenticity of a message, it can also prove the integrity of the information being sent and received. The technology also ensures information is not altered while in storage or during transit between the sender and the intended recipient. For example, digital signatures can detect forgery or tampering in software distribution and  financial transactions.Cryptography confirms accountability and responsibility from the sender of a message, which means they cannot later deny their intentions when they created or transmitted information. Digital signatures are a good example of this, as they ensure a sender cannot claim a message, contract, or document they created to be fraudulent. Furthermore, in email nonrepudiation, email tracking makes sure the sender cannot deny sending a message and a recipient cannot deny receiving it.

There are many types of cryptographic algorithms available. They vary in complexity and security, depending on the type of communication and the sensitivity of the information being shared.

Internet: (adapted).

Leia o texto para responder à questão.

    Assessment is perhaps one of the least understood areas of language teaching and learning. Students may see tests as a threat to their competence because they are afraid they will not perform well. Teachers often do not like to construct tests and are not altogether satisfied with the results when they do.

     A more constructive view of language testing exists when (a) testing is undertood as an opportunity for interaction between teacher and student; (b) students are judged on the basis of the knowledge they have; (c) the criteria for success on the test are clear to students; (d) students receive a grade for their performance on a set of tests representing different testing methods (not just one!); (e) the tests are intended to help students improve their skills; (f) the results are discussed.

    The seminal efforts by Canalle e Swain (1980) to operationalize Hymes’ (1972) communicative competence have provided a relevant set of criteria for describing tests. Tests should be seen as tapping one or more of the four components making up the construct of communicative competence: grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic competence.

(Andrew D.Cohen. Second language Assessment. IN: Marianne

Cerce-Murcia(ed). Teaching English as a second or foreign language.

Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2nd edition. 2001. Adaptado)

Read text I and answer the  question that follow it.

TEXT I

The Growing Complexity of Airspace

        The aviation industry has witnessed unprecedented growth in recent years. The number of flights, both commercial and private, has surged, resulting in a more congested airspace. This increased traffic volume places immense strain on air traffic controllers, who must manage a complex web of aircraft movements with precision and efficiency.

        Moreover, the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or drones) into the airspace adds another layer of complexity. While drones offer various benefits, their unregulated use poses significant risks to commercial aviation. Harmonizing the operations of manned and unmanned aircraft is a major challenge that requires careful consideration and robust regulations.

        Despite advancements in aviation technology, the air traffic control system still relies heavily on outdated infrastructure and systems. Many air traffic control centers operate with aging equipment that is prone to failures and lacks the capacity to handle the increasing volume of traffic. This infrastructure gap can lead to delays, inefficiencies, and safety concerns.

         Furthermore, the integration of new technologies, such as advanced automation and data analytics, has been slow. While these technologies hold the potential to revolutionize air traffic management, their implementation has been hindered by various factors, including cost, interoperability, and cybersecurity concerns.

        Air traffic control is a high-pressure job that demands exceptional focus, decision-making skills, and situational awareness. While air traffic controllers undergo rigorous training, human error remains a significant risk factor. Factors such as fatigue, stress, and workload can contribute to mistakes that have serious consequences. […]

        The increasing reliance on technology in the aviation industry has made it a prime target for cyberattacks. Air traffic control systems are critical infrastructure and must be protected from malicious actors. A successful cyberattack could have catastrophic consequences, including loss of life and economic damage. […]

        Addressing the problems facing air traffic control requires a multi-faceted approach involving collaboration between government agencies, aviation industry stakeholders, and technology providers.

Adapted from https://birminghamjournal.co.uk/ problems-with-air-traffic-control-today/

Japan in the Ancient World 

Japanese archaeologists divide the earliest part of Japanese history into four periods: the Paleolithic (preceramic) period, the Jomon (cord-marked pottery) period, the Yayoi period, and the Kofun (burial mound) period. Underlying this chronology, however, are two basic problems: First, who are the Japanese, and where did they come from? Second, how do the Japanese or "proto-Japanese" relate to the Ainu, a group of people who have resided in Japan since about 7500 B.C.E. but differ racially, culturally, and linguistically from modern Japanese in significant ways? 

Paleolithic Japan (before 10,000 B.C.E.)

The Japanese islands have probably been occupied by humans for at least 30,000 years, if not longer. However, 10,000 years ago, Paleolithic Japan was a cooler place, and the sea level was 125 feet (38 meters) lower; therefore, some of the archaeological evidence of the earliest inhabitants is submerged. These hunters and gatherers, who had an extensive stone-tool inventory, most likely came to southern Japan through present-day Korea or to northern Japan from eastern Siberia, though there is abundant evidence of land connections to Asia at this time throughout the islands. It appears that the complete physical separation of the Japanese islands occurred only as recently as 18,000 to 12,000 years ago.

Jomon period (c. 10,000-c. 300 B.C.E.)

Starting about 13,000 years ago, when the Japanese climate began to warm, beautiful local pottery traditions—characterized by complex impressions made by twisted cords or sticks on the outside of pots before baking—abruptly appeared at various locales. Such ceramics eventually became commonplace throughout the islands. The Jomon people (named for this distinctive "cord-marked" ceramic style) were probably the direct descendants of the people of the previous Paleolithic traditions. They were very successful at hunting, fishing, and gathering, and because of the numerous rivers and rugged coastlines, they were largely sedentary. Shell mounds all over the islands indicate how extensively the ocean and rivers were exploited by Jomon people. The Jomon pottery eventually came to show distinctive regional styles, suggesting the existence of rather well-defined cultural groups and local folk traditions.

Yayoi (c. 300 B.C.E.-c. 300 C.E.)

About two thousand years ago, a distinct break occurred in the archaeological record. In Kyushu, the southernmost main island of Japan, bronze from the Korean peninsula and a newer style of earthenware pottery appeared, and iron smelting was developed. These changes characterize the Yayoi period, named after the district in modern Tokyo where certain artifacts were first discovered. The Yayoi period also saw the beginning of Japanese-style intensive irrigated wet-rice cultivation, which became the main means of subsistence for almost everyone on the islands. This agrarian rice-based economy—with basically the same kind of farming practices—would persist until Japan's westernization in the late nineteenth century.

However, controversy surrounds the origins of this culture. The Yayoi people may have come from overseas and replaced the earlier Jomon people (as evidenced by the presence of many new technologies from abroad). For many years, Japanese archaeologists have assumed this to be true, with the implication being that the Jomon people are the ancestors of modern Ainu, and modern Japanese are the descendants of those who migrated from the Asian mainland during the Yayoi and Kofun periods. However, a majority of archaeologists feel that the record probably indicates a gradual but direct continuity from Jomon people to early, but historically identifiable, Japanese, with any migration from the mainland blending in with the local cultures. In either case, by the end of the Yayoi period, certain institutional structures were in place—a division of labor, the accumulation of prestige and luxury goods by particular individuals, and the rise of complex political organizations—which created a more stratified society, allowing for the development of a full-fledged Japanese state in the Kofun period.

https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/japan-ancient-world